Authors like to thank Sebastián García (LAMARX) for spectra acquisition, Carolina Leimbruguer for her support with TEM images and Yanina Altamirano, Nicolas Jaime and Javier Reparaz for animal care assistance.

TiO2 is also used in the production of plastics, where it serves as a whitening agent and UV stabilizer. By incorporating TiO2 into plastic products, manufacturers can enhance their appearance, increase their lifespan, and improve their resistance to sunlight and weathering. Additionally, TiO2 helps prevent the degradation of plastic materials, ensuring that they retain their properties and performance over time.

Not everyone agrees, though. The European Commission banned titanium dioxide as a food additive in the European Union in 2022.

In a 2017 study published in Scientific Reports, researchers exposed rats to human-relevant levels of E171 to examine the effects of intestinal inflammation and carcinogenesis. They saw that “a 100-day E171 treatment promoted colon microinflammation and initiated preneoplastic lesions while also fostering the growth of aberrant crypt foci in a chemically induced carcinogenesis model.” They continued: “Stimulation of immune cells isolated from Peyer’s Patches [which are clusters of lymphoid follicles found in the intestine] showed a decrease in Thelper (Th)-1 IFN-γ secretion, while splenic Th1/Th17 inflammatory responses sharply increased,” researchers wrote. “A 100-day titanium dioxide treatment promoted colon microinflammation and initiated preneoplastic lesions.” The scientists concluded: “These data should be considered for risk assessments of the susceptibility to Th17-driven autoimmune diseases and to colorectal cancer in humans exposed to TiO2 from dietary sources.”

In cosmetics, titanium dioxide’s properties enhance coloration and can help protect skin from damaging UVA and UVB rays.

In addition to the toxic effects of TiO₂ NPs, discussed in previous chapters, these NPs have been also shown to promote photosynthesis and nitrogen metabolism, resulting in the enhanced growth of spinach. It increases the absorption of light and accelerates the transfer and transformation of the light energy. It was also found that treatment with nano-sized TiO₂ significantly increased the level of antioxidant enzymes, and decreased the ROS accumulation and malonyldialdehyde content in spinach chloroplasts under visible and UV irradiation. TiO₂ NPs also increased the superoxide dismutase activity of germinating soybean, enhanced its antioxidant ability, and promoted seed germination and seedling growth.

The realization of neuromorphic resistive memory in TiO₂ thin films (Strukov et al., 2008) marked an important milestone in the search for bio-inspired technologies (Chua and Kang, 1976). Many research proposals urged a focus on memristivity as the common feature of two electrical models: (i) electromigration of point defects in titanium oxide systems (Baiatu et al., 1990; Jameson et al., 2007) and (ii) voltage-gated ionic channels in the membranes of biological neurons (Hodgkin and Huxley, 1952). In this regard, memristors functionally mimic the synaptic plasticity of biological neurons, and thus can be implemented in artificial and hybrid neural networks. This includes a new paradigm of future computing systems (Zidan, 2018) and biocompatible electronics such as biointerfaces and biohybrid systems (Chiolerio et al., 2017).

14 Max

Funding sources

See also[edit]

Lithopone: an alternative to titanium dioxide

1. Lithopone is used as an inert pigment in paints, inks and cosmetics.

The surge in demand for interior and exterior paints and use of plastic across various end-use industries drive the global Lithopone market. Lithopone white pigment is used in paints and coating systems that find applications in residential and industrial landscapes. Hence, as the construction & building sector flourishes, the demand for building and architectural materials such as paints and coatings will increase. This trend is conducive for the Lithopone market growth. In addition, white plastic materials are increasingly being used in consumer products. Developments in plastic forming technology is anticipated to indirectly boost plastic production, thus, increasing the demand for white pigments during the forecast period.